Я не могу понять, почему перевести 6 пьес Шекспира, заложить основу к ознакомлению с целой молодой литературой и самому заслужить расположение какой-то, пусть небольшой, но не совершенно испорченной и уголовной части общества, почему все это — не советская деятельность, а сделать десятую часть этого и плохо — советская? Я далее не понимаю, отчего десятки заслуживающих этого пожилых беспартийных сделали «нашими», премировав их без допроса и таким образом признав за ними это звание, а я из-под взведенного на меня телескопа сам должен составлять свою рентгеноскопию и покупать это нашенство отречением от тех, кто относится ко мне по-человечески, в пользу тех, кто ко мне относится враждебно, и от тех остатков христианства и толстовства, которые при известном возрасте, неизбежны у всякого, кто проходит и заходит достаточно далеко, вступив на поприще русской литературы. Все это чистый бред и абсурд, на который при краткости человеческой жизни нельзя тратить времени. Тем более, что я ничего не боюсь. Моя жизнь так пряма, что любой ее оборот приемлем.[1347]
Так сложилось шаткое равновесие во взаимоотношениях Пастернака с властями, продержавшееся до смерти Сталина.
Как мы видим, первоначальное выдвижение Пастернака на Нобелевскую премию в январе 1946 года сразу оказалось в фокусе столкновений разнонаправленных векторов общественной и культурной жизни в разных странах Европы. Появление в 1957–1958 годах «Доктора Живаго» заставляло искать прототипа Евграфа, с его «защитной» ролью, в реальной жизни автора и даже предлагать Фадеева в кандидаты. Такое предположение лишено основания потому, что на деле именно на Фадеева (в ком некоторым захотелось увидеть такого защитника поэта) и было возложено в сентябре 1947 года осуществление антипастернаковского сегмента общей кампании. Относительная «мягкость» нападок на поэта не была следствием личного благоволения или могущества высокопоставленного чиновника; она явилась результатом того, что развернувшаяся борьба шла «на равных». Не таинственные покровители в верхах, не «Евграф», не Фадеев и не Симонов «спасали» Пастернака в той, чреватой грозными последствиями, атмосфере — судьбу его определила сложившаяся конфигурация международно-политических факторов. И какие бы ограниченные задачи ни ставил перед собой Н. О. Нильссон в заметке о Пастернаке в «Expressen», рассмотрение ее в целостной литературно-политической картине позволяет считать, что она действительно сыграла «защитную» роль в пастернаковской биографии. Она раскрыла особую высоту статуса поэта за рубежом в момент, несший в себе особую угрозу ему на родине.
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Магнус Юнггрен, Лазарь Флейшман
Russian Diplomats and their Image of Germany before World War I
The relations between Russia and Germany have a long and colourful history, which has been studied thoroughly in most of its aspects[1348]. Religion, politics, philosophy, economy, wars, the arts and culture — these are just some of the areas in which Germans and Russians have been in contact over many centuries. Literary relations have frequently provided some of the most prominent and fruitful links, which Konstantin Azadovskii has for many years explored and actively promoted. The correspondences of writers, their mutual visits, their love for the culture of the other country and their translating activities have all been subjects of distinguished studies by Konstantin Markovich, not to forget his own translations from German literature into Russian.
Mutual perceptions and images of the other have always played an essential role in the relations between Germans and Russians and have been explored accordingly[1349]. They are particularly well known in popular culture and in literature — just think of the archetypical Petersburg Germans in the works of Gogol or of Rilke’s fascination with the Russian spirit, or recall the many cartoons, jokes and popular broadsheets making fun of stereotypical Ivans and Russian bears on the one hand or немцы шмерцы and колбасники on the other[1350]. But mutual perceptions have also affected (and continue to affect) other areas of Russo-German relations, beyond the spheres of high and low cultures. Foreign policy, for example, is one such area While its decisions are ideally based on cold reason and national interest, they are, in the end, still taken by human beings and thus prone to personal influences.
The following essay is a study of attitudes towards Germany among members of Russia’s foreign office in the years before 1914. According to historians, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, just as Russian politics more generally during that time, was effectively divided into a pro- and an anti-German group[1351]. How much these predispositions influenced actual foreign policy is hard to ascertain. But they did sometimes affect personnel decisions and thus had at least indirectly an effect on the practical diplomatic discourse between Russia and Germany. Most of what will be discussed is based on memoirs of politicians and diplomats, i.e. sources, which many serious historians have been reluctant to use, because of their inherently tendentious nature. And they are indeed not particularly helpful if one wants to investigate actual foreign policy issues, international relations and diplomatic crises. Yet for studying perceptions and stereotypes, such ego-documents are of immense value[1352]. They still provide the most authentic voice for the convictions of their authors, even if they were written years after the events which they relate.
Russian foreign policy before World War I has been studied in great detail, including the nationalist views of some of its actors. Dominic Lieven, for one, has discussed pro-German attitudes, focusing mainly on three high-ranking officials[1353]. However, he did not consider lower-ranking personnel and has little to say about anti-Germans, many of whom held leading positions. Several of these people have left memoirs and correspondences which allow additional insights into the кулуарная политика at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Pro-German writers, as may be expected, tended to draw a rather benign image of Germany and things German. In the writings of anti-German officials, pan-Slavist ideas about a final showdown between Germans and Slavs were often shining through as was the so-called German Drang nach Osten. This relatively new and thoroughly a-historical catchword was commonly mobilized to create a scenario of threat reaching back deep into the past. It allowed for conflating such different phenomena as German rearmament, economic power and 18th c. Volga-German colonists with anti-Russian diatribes by Baltic German activists and the contemporary political crises in the Balkans. Its appeal was such that it even appeared in official Russian diplomatic correspondence, while pan-Slavist ideas were part of the foreign policy programmes of almost all parties represented in the State Duma At least in this respect, politics and public opinion went hand in hand. In most of the Russian press after 1900, Germany was seen as a bastion of reaction and military expansionism. Only some conservative papers like «Grazhdanin» or «Rossiia» were more lenient with German positions, stressing the importance of a strong monarchy and of good relations with Germany in the fight against «anarchism, nihilism and social democracy»[1354].
