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Palmerston to Clarendon, July 20, 1856, quoted in Harold Temperley and Lillian M. Penson, Foundations of British Foreign Policy from Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1938).

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651) (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994), Lucy Norton, ed., Saint-Simon at Versailles (London: Hamilton, 1958), 217–30.

Gerhard Ritter, Frederick the Great: A Historical Profile, trans. Peter Paret (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 29–30.

Frederick II of Prussia, Oeuvres, 2, XXV (1775), as quoted in Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d’Йtat and Its Place in Modern History, trans. Douglas Scott (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957) (originally published in German, 1925), 304.

Otto von Bismarck, Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1899), 316.

Otto von Bismarck, The Kaiser vs. Bismarck: Suppressed Letters by the Kaiser and New Chapters from the Autobiography of the Iron Chancellor (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1921), 144–45.

Alexander Pope, An Essay on Man (1734), epistle iii, lines 303–4.

G. P. Gooch, Frederick the Great (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1947), 4–5.

David A. Bell, The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007), 5.

Susan Mary Alsop, The Congress Dances: Vienna, 1814–1815 (New York: Harper & Row, 1984).

Adam Zamoyski, Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (London: HarperPress, 2007).

Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, «Йlйments de Philosophie» (1759), as quoted in Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, trans. Fritz C. A. Koelln and James P. Pettegrove, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951), 3.

Denis Diderot, «The Encyclopedia» (1755), in Rameau’s Nephew and Other Works, trans. Jacques Barzun and Ralph H. Bowen (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2001), 283.

Montesquieu, Considйrations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur dйcadence (1734), as quoted in Cassirer, Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 213.

Immanuel Kant, «Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose» (1784), in Kant: Political Writings, ed. H. S. Reiss (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 44.

Immanuel Kant, «Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch» (1795), in Reiss, Kant, 96.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and The Social Contract, in The Basic Political Writings (1755; 1762) (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987), 61, 141.

«Declaration for Assistance and Fraternity to Foreign Peoples» (November 19, 1792), in The Constitutions and Other Select Documents Illustrative of the History of France, 1789–1907 (London: H. W. Wilson, 1908), 130.

«Decree for Proclaiming the Liberty and Sovereignty of All Peoples» (December 15, 1792), in ibid., 132–33.

Hegel to Friedrich Niethammer, October 13, 1806, in Hegel: The Letters, trans. Clark Butler and Christine Seiler with commentary by Clark Butler (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985).

Marquis de Custine, Empire of the Czar: A Journey Through Eternal Russia (1843; New York: Anchor Books, 1990), 69.

Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 5–6.

Nikolai Danilevskii, Russia and Europe: A View on Cultural and Political Relations Between the Slavic and German-Roman Worlds (St. Petersburg, 1871), as translated and excerpted in Imperial Russia: A Source Book, 1700–1917, ed. Basil Dmytryshyn (Gulf Breeze, Fla: Academic International Press, 1999), 373.

Vasili O. Kliuchevsky, A Course in Russian History: The Seventeenth Century (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 366. See also Hosking, Russia, 4.

John P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 348.

Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (1907; New York: Modern Library, 1931), 439.

Orlando Figes, Natasha’s Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (New York: Picador, 2002), 376–377.

George Vernadsky, ed., A Source Book for Russian History: From Early Times to 1917 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1972), 3:610.

Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1985).

Paul Harrison Silfen, The Influence of the Mongols on Russia: A Dimensional History (Hicksville, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1974).

Virginia Cowles, The Romanovs (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 33–37.

Robert K. Massie, Peter the Great (New York: Ballantine Books, 1980), 188–89, 208.

B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (New York: Collier Books, 1962), 45.

Catherine II, Nakaz (Instruction) to the Legislative Commission of 1767–68, in Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia, 80.

Maria Lipman, Lev Gudkov, Lasha Bakradze, and Thomas de Waal, The Stalin Puzzle: Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2013).

Nikolai Karamzin on Czar Alexander I, as quoted in W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (New York: Anchor Books, 1981), 489.

Fyodor Dostoevsky, A Writer’s Diary (1881), as quoted in Figes, Natasha’s Dance, 308.

Pyotr Chaadaev, «Philosophical Letter» (1829, published 1836), as quoted in Figes, Natasha’s Dance, 132, and Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia, 251.

Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov, May 24, 1882, editorial in Moskovskie vedomosti (Moscow News), as excerpted in Verdansky, A Source Book for Russian History, 3:676.

Wilhelm Schwarz, Die Heilige Allianz (Stuttgart, 1935), 52.

Klemens von Metternich, Aus Metternich’s nachgelassenen Papieren, ed. Alfons v. Klinkowstroem (Vienna, 1881), 1:316.

Palmerston’s dispatch no. 6 to the Marquess of Clanricarde (ambassador in St. Petersburg), January 11, 1841, in The Foreign Policy of Victorian England, ed. Kenneth Bourne (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), 252–53.

Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (New York: Viking, 1976), 158, 204.

Jacques Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life (New York: Perennial, 2000), 482.

Lewis Namier, Vanished Supremacies: Essays on European History, 1812–1918 (New York: Penguin Books, 1958), 203.

Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 336–39.

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie 33 (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1891), 266.

Heinrich Sbrik, Metternich, der Staatsmann und der Mensch, 2 vols. (Munich, 1925), 1:354, as cited in Henry A. Kissinger, «The Conservative Dilemma: Reflections on the Political Thought of Metternich», American Political Science Review 48, no. 4 (December 1954): 1027.

Algernon Cecil, Metternich, 1773–1859 (London: Eyre and Spottiswood, 1947), 52.

Briefwechsel des Generals Leopold von Gerlach mit dem Bundestags-Gesandten Otto von Bismarck (Berlin, 1893), 334.

Horst Kohl, Die politischen Reden des Fursten Bismarck (Stuttgart, 1892), 264.

Speech of February 9, 1871, in Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, ser. 3, vol. 204 (February – March 1871), 82.